Non-Living Substances (अजीव)

अजीवकाया धर्माधर्माकाशपुद्गलाः ॥१॥

The non-soul substances (bodies) are the medium of motion (dharma), the medium of rest (adharma), space (akasha), and matter (pudgala).

These four are called "bodies" (kaya) because, like a physical body that is a collection of parts, each of these substances is a vast collection of space-points. The word "non-soul" (ajiva) means they lack the defining mark of a soul — consciousness. Time (kala) is also non-soul but is not called a "body" because it has no collection of space-points. Each time-atom stands alone, occupying just one point in space.

द्रव्याणि ॥२॥

These — dharma, adharma, akasha, and pudgala — are substances (dravya).

What makes something a "substance"? It must have qualities (guna) and modes (paryaya). A substance is not just a name or a concept — it is a real, independent entity that persists through change. These four non-soul bodies all qualify. They are real things that undergo modifications while maintaining their essential nature, just as gold remains gold whether shaped into a ring or a bracelet.

जीवाश्च ॥३॥

The souls (jiva) also are substances (dravya).

The previous sutra named four non-soul substances. This sutra adds the soul to the list. So now we have five substances. Later, time (kala) will be added as the sixth. Together, these six substances make up everything that exists in the Jain universe. Nothing falls outside them. The soul qualifies as a substance because it has permanent qualities like consciousness and undergoes constant modifications like different states of knowledge.

नित्यावस्थितान्यरूपाणि ॥४॥

The substances are eternal (nitya), fixed-in-number (avasthita), and colourless (arupi).

No substance is ever created or destroyed — this is what "eternal" means here. The total count of each substance never changes — that is "fixed-in-number." And except for matter (pudgala), all substances are colourless and formless. They cannot be seen, touched, or smelled. Think of them like the rules of physics: invisible and constant, but absolutely essential for everything to work.

रूपिणः पुद्गलाः ॥५॥

Things which have form (rupi) constitute the matter (pudgala).

This sutra is the exception to the previous one. While all other substances are formless, matter is the one substance you can actually perceive. "Form" (rupa) here means the quality of having touch, taste, smell, and colour. Everything you can see, hold, eat, or smell is matter. Your body, the air, a mountain, a sound wave — all pudgala. It comes in two forms: atoms (the smallest indivisible units) and molecules (combinations of atoms).

आ आकाशादेकद्रव्याणि ॥६॥

Up to space (akasha), each substance is a single, indivisible whole (one substance each).

The medium of motion is one single continuous entity — not many separate pieces. The same is true for the medium of rest and space. Each exists as one unbroken whole, like a single ocean rather than many puddles. This is different from souls and matter, which exist as countless individual units. There is exactly one dharma, one adharma, and one akasha in the universe.

निष्क्रियाणि च ॥७॥

These three (the medium of motion, the medium of rest, and space) are also without movement (niskriya).

Despite helping others move and rest, these three substances themselves never move. They are completely passive. The medium of motion does not itself travel anywhere — it simply makes movement possible for souls and matter, like water makes it possible for fish to swim without the water itself swimming. Similarly, space does not move to make room; it simply provides room by its nature.

असंख्येयाः प्रदेशा धर्माधर्मैकजीवानाम् ॥८॥

There are innumerable (asamkhyata) space-points (pradesha) in the medium of motion, the medium of rest, and each individual soul.

A space-point (pradesha) is the smallest unit of space — the area occupied by one indivisible atom. The medium of motion and the medium of rest each fill innumerable such points, and so does each individual soul. "Innumerable" is a specific mathematical category in Jainism: it means the number is finite but so large that no ordinary counting can reach it. The soul can expand or contract to fill different numbers of space-points, but the count always remains innumerable.

आकाशस्यानन्ताः ॥९॥

The substance of space (akasha) has infinite (ananta) space-points.

Space is the only substance that is truly infinite in extent. It stretches endlessly in all directions. The universe (loka) takes up only a tiny part of it. Beyond the universe lies the infinite non-universe space (alokakasha), which is empty — no souls, no matter, no motion, no rest. Just endless, limitless space.

संख्येयासंख्येयाश्च पुद्गलानाम् ॥१०॥

The space-points of matter (pudgala) are numerable (samkhyata), innumerable (asamkhyata), and infinite (ananta).

Matter is unique because its space-points span all three categories. A single atom occupies just one space-point (numerable). A small molecule may span a countable number. But large molecules can stretch across innumerable or even infinite space-points in the universe-space. This range reflects the incredible variety of matter — from the tiniest particle to vast structures that fill the cosmos.

नाणोः ॥११॥

There are no space-points (pradesha) in the indivisible atom (paramanu).

This sounds contradictory, but it makes precise sense. A space-point is defined as the area occupied by one atom. Since the atom itself is that smallest possible unit, you cannot divide it further into "parts" or "points." It is the measuring stick itself. Saying the atom has space-points would be like asking how many inches are in an inch — it is the fundamental unit, with nothing smaller inside it.

लोकाकाशेऽवगाहः ॥१२॥

These substances are located in the universe-space (lokakasha).

All five main substances — the medium of motion, the medium of rest, souls, matter, and even the portion of space within the universe — exist only within the universe (loka). Outside the universe is the non-universe (aloka), which is pure empty space and nothing else. Think of the universe as a container that holds all activity, all life, all matter. Beyond it, there is nothing but endless emptiness.

धर्माधर्मयोः कृत्स्ने ॥१३॥

The medium of motion (dharma) and the medium of rest (adharma) pervade the entire universe-space (lokakasha).

These two substances fill every corner of the universe completely, like oil soaked into every part of a sesame seed. They are not patchy or partial — they cover every single space-point of the universe, without any gaps. Yet despite being in the same place at the same time, they do not merge or lose their individual identity. Each maintains its own nature while coexisting perfectly.

एकप्रदेशादिषु भाज्यः पुद्गलानाम् ॥१४॥

The forms of matter (pudgala) occupy from one space-point onwards.

Unlike dharma and adharma which always fill the entire universe, matter comes in all sizes. A single atom takes up one space-point. Two atoms combined might take up one or two. Larger molecules spread across numerable, innumerable, or even infinite space-points. Matter is the most variable of all substances — from the invisibly tiny to the cosmically vast.

असंख्येयभागादिषु जीवानाम् ॥१५॥

The souls (jiva) inhabit one of innumerable (asamkhyata) parts, and so on, of the universe-space.

The universe-space is divided into innumerable parts. Each soul starts by occupying one such innumerable part. A single soul can inhabit one, two, three, or more of these parts. While each individual soul occupies just a fraction of the universe, all the souls taken together fill the entire universe-space. Even the tiniest one-sensed beings (nigoda) in their subtle bodies dwell within these innumerable divisions without obstructing each other.

प्रदेशसंहारविसर्पाभ्यां प्रदीपवत् ॥१६॥

The soul occupies space like the light of a lamp — through contraction (samhara) and expansion (visarpa) of its space-points.

A lamp in a small room fills only that room with light. The same lamp in a large hall fills the whole hall. The light does not change — the space it occupies does. Similarly, the soul contracts to fit a tiny ant body or expands to fill a large elephant body. This flexibility is due to the karmic body (karmana sharira) that determines the soul's physical form. The soul is non-material, so it can adjust its spatial extent without gaining or losing anything.

गतिस्थित्युपग्रहौ धर्माधर्मयोरुपकारः ॥१७॥

The functions of the medium of motion (dharma) and the medium of rest (adharma) are to assist motion and rest, respectively.

The medium of motion does not push anything — it simply makes movement possible. Just as water allows a fish to swim (but does not force it to), dharma allows souls and matter to move. Similarly, adharma allows things to come to rest, like the earth supports a horse that stops running. Neither substance is an active force. They are passive enablers. Without dharma, nothing could move. Without adharma, nothing could stop. Together, they make all activity in the universe possible.

आकाशस्यावगाहः ॥१८॥

The function of space (akasha) is to provide accommodation (avagaha).

Space gives room. That is its one job. Every other substance needs somewhere to exist, and space provides that "somewhere." Without space, no substance could be located anywhere. It accommodates all substances simultaneously — souls, matter, dharma, adharma — without obstruction. Even material objects can share the same space at the subtle level, just as the light from many lamps in a room intermingles without any lamp blocking another.

शरीरवाङ्मनःप्राणापानाः पुद्गलानाम् ॥१९॥

The function of matter (pudgala) is to form the basis of the body (sharira), the organs of speech (vacana), the mind (mana), and respiration (pranpana).

Everything physical that a living being uses is made of matter. Your body — all five types of bodies in Jainism, from the gross visible body to the invisible karmic body — is matter. The physical mechanism of speech is matter. Even the physical mind (the brain, as we would say today) is matter. And breathing — inhaling and exhaling air — is a material process. The soul uses all these material tools but is itself non-material.

सुखदुःखजीवितमरणाश्च ॥२०॥

The function of matter also includes contributing to pleasure (sukha), suffering (duhkha), living (jivita), and death (marana).

Karmas are made of matter, and they are responsible for whether you feel pleasure or pain. The age-determining karma (ayuh karma) keeps you alive, and when it expires, death occurs. So matter is not just your body — it is also the invisible machinery that delivers your experiences. Bronze is purified by certain ashes, water by clearing nuts. In the same way, the body, the senses, and even your feelings are all constituted by matter.

परस्परोपग्रहो जीवानाम् ॥२१॥

The function of souls (jiva) is to help one another.

Souls serve each other. The master helps the servant with wages, the servant protects the master. The teacher shows the path, the student serves the teacher. This mutual assistance is the fundamental function of souls. Living beings are the cause of pleasure, suffering, life, and death for each other. This principle is one of the most humanistic ideas in Jain philosophy — souls exist not in isolation but in a web of mutual interdependence.

वर्तनापरिणामक्रियाः परत्वापरत्वे च कालस्य ॥२२॥

Assisting substances in their continuity of being (vartana), their modification (parinama), their movement (kriya), their endurance (paratva), and their non-endurance (aparatva) — these are the functions of time (kala).

Time is the invisible engine behind all change. "Vartana" is the continuous, imperceptible transformation that all substances undergo every instant. "Parinama" is the more visible modification — anger arising in a soul, colour changing in matter. "Kriya" is movement. "Paratva" and "aparatva" are older and newer — the sense that some things endure longer than others. Time makes all of this possible. Without time, nothing could change, and without change, existence would be meaningless.

स्पर्शरसगन्धवर्णवन्तः पुद्गलाः ॥२३॥

The forms of matter (pudgala) are characterized by touch (sparsha), taste (rasa), smell (gandha), and colour (varna).

These four qualities are what make matter "material." Touch comes in eight kinds: soft, hard, heavy, light, cold, hot, smooth, and rough. Taste comes in five: bitter, sour, acidic, sweet, and astringent. Smell is two: pleasant and unpleasant. Colour is five: black, blue, yellow, white, and red. Every piece of matter in the universe — from the tiniest atom to the largest mountain — possesses all four of these qualities. They are inseparable from matter.

शब्दबन्धसौक्ष्म्यस्थौल्यसंस्थानभेदतमश्छायातपोद्योतवन्तश्च ॥२४॥

Sound (shabda), union (bandha), fineness (suksmatva), grossness (sthulatva), shape (samsthana), division (bheda), darkness (andhakara), image/shadow (chhaya), warm light (atapa), and cool light (udyota) are also modes of matter.

Beyond the four fundamental qualities, matter also displays these ten modes (paryaya). Sound includes all spoken language, music, and natural sounds like thunder. Union is the combining of particles — from lightning to a potter shaping clay. Fineness and grossness describe the scale of matter. Shape includes every geometrical form. Division is splitting — sawing wood, grinding grain. Darkness is the absence of light. Shadow is caused by blocking light. Warm light comes from the sun and fire. Cool light comes from the moon and fireflies.

अणवः स्कन्धाश्च ॥२५॥

The atoms (anu) and molecules (skandha) are the two divisions of matter (pudgala).

All matter falls into two categories. An atom (anu) is the smallest indivisible particle. It occupies exactly one space-point and has touch, taste, smell, and colour. It is so small that it cannot be perceived by any sense. A molecule (skandha) is a combination of two or more atoms. Molecules can be perceived when they become gross enough. Everything you can see and touch is a molecule. The Scriptures say: "The atom is itself the beginning, the middle, and the end."

भेदसङ्घातेभ्य उत्पद्यन्ते ॥२६॥

Molecules (skandha) are formed by fission (bheda), fusion (sanghata), and division-cum-union (bheda-sanghata).

When a molecule splits, the fragments are new molecules — that is fission. When separate atoms or molecules join together, that is fusion. And when splitting and joining happen simultaneously, that is division-cum-union. By these three processes, molecules of numerable, innumerable, and infinite atoms are constantly being formed, broken apart, and reformed. This is how the material world is always in flux, always changing, while the atoms themselves remain indestructible.

भेदादणुः ॥२७॥

The atom (anu) is produced only by fission (bheda).

An atom can only come into existence when a molecule splits apart. It cannot be produced by fusion or by the combined process. This is a definitive rule. When a molecule breaks down to its most fundamental level, the individual atoms that emerge are the end result of fission. An atom is the ultimate indivisible unit — you cannot break it further, and it cannot be "built" by joining smaller pieces because there are no smaller pieces.

भेदसङ्घाताभ्यां चाक्षुषः ॥२८॥

The molecules (skandha) produced by the combined action of fission and fusion (bheda-sanghata) can be perceived by the eyes.

Not all molecules are visible. When a tiny molecule splits and simultaneously combines with another, it can gain grossness. This is what makes it perceivable by the eyes. A molecule that only splits remains minute and invisible. A molecule formed by fusion alone might also remain imperceptible. But the combined process of breaking and joining at the same instant produces a transformation in size that makes the result visible to the naked eye.

सद्द्रव्यलक्षणम् ॥२९॥

The mark (lakshana) of a substance (dravya) is existence (sat).

How do you know something is a real substance? It exists. "Sat" means being, reality, existence. If something truly exists — not as an idea or a word, but as an actual entity — then it is a substance. This is the most fundamental definition in Jain metaphysics. Existence is not just a property of substances; it is their defining characteristic. What does not exist is not a substance. What exists is.

उत्पादव्ययध्रौव्ययुक्तं सत् ॥३०॥

Existence (sat) is accompanied by origination (utpada), destruction (vyaya), and permanence (dhrauvya).

This is one of the most important sutras in all of Jain philosophy. Every existing thing, at every moment, undergoes three things simultaneously: something new arises (origination), something old passes away (destruction), and the underlying substance persists (permanence). A lump of clay is shaped into a pot — the pot originates, the lump-shape is destroyed, but the clay endures. These three are inseparable. There is no origination without destruction, and no destruction without permanence.

तद्भावाव्ययं नित्यम् ॥३१॥

Permanence (nitya) is the indestructibility of own-nature (tadbhava).

What makes something "permanent"? Not that it never changes — everything changes constantly. Permanence means that the essential nature of a substance can never be destroyed. Gold can become a ring, a chain, or a coin, but it never stops being gold. You recognize it as "the same thing I saw earlier" precisely because its core nature persists. Without this continuity, recognition would be impossible, all relationships would collapse, and the path to liberation would have no meaning.

अर्पितानर्पितसिद्धेः ॥३२॥

The seemingly contradictory attributes are established from primary (arpita) or secondary (anarpita) points of view.

How can something be both permanent and impermanent? Through Anekantavada — the Jain doctrine of multiple viewpoints. When we focus on the general, enduring nature of a substance, it is permanent. When we focus on its specific, changing modes, it is impermanent. Both are true at the same time, from different angles. A person is a father to his son, a son to his father, and a brother to his sibling — all at once. There is no contradiction, only different perspectives on the same reality.

स्निग्धरूक्षत्वाद् बन्धः ॥३३॥

Combination of atoms takes place by virtue of their greasiness (snigdhatva) and roughness (ruksatva).

Atoms are not random — they combine because of two specific properties. "Greasiness" (snigdha) is like smoothness or stickiness — think of how water, milk, and ghee have increasing levels of it. "Roughness" (ruksa) is the opposite quality, found in dust, ash, and sand. These two properties come in varying degrees. When atoms with these properties meet under the right conditions, they bind together to form molecules. It is the Jain equivalent of what modern chemistry calls bonding forces.

न जघन्यगुणानाम् ॥३४॥

Combination does not take place between atoms of the lowest degrees of the two attributes.

If an atom has the very lowest degree of greasiness and another has the very lowest degree of roughness, they will not combine. The binding force is too weak. Similarly, the lowest degree of greasiness will not combine with any degree of roughness or greasiness. This is a precise rule — the minimum threshold for combination is not met when both atoms are at their weakest levels of these properties.

गुणसाम्ये सदृशानाम् ॥३५॥

There is no combination between atoms of the same degree of the same attribute.

Two atoms with exactly the same degree of greasiness will not combine with each other. Neither will two atoms with the same degree of roughness. There must be a difference in degree for combination to occur. Think of it like magnets: two identical poles repel. Similarly, atoms with perfectly equal properties of the same type do not attract each other. The key to combination is contrast and difference, not sameness.

द्व्यधिकादिगुणानां तु ॥३६॥

There is combination only when the degree of greasiness or roughness is higher by two units.

The minimum difference required for combination is two degrees. An atom with two degrees of greasiness will combine with one of four degrees, but not with one of three. An atom with three degrees combines with five, and so on. This rule applies to both similar types (greasiness with greasiness, roughness with roughness) and dissimilar types (greasiness with roughness). The two-unit gap ensures that only sufficiently different atoms bind together.

बन्धेऽधिकौ पारिणामिकौ च ॥३७॥

In the process of combination, the atom with the higher degree of the attribute transforms the other.

When two atoms combine, the stronger one changes the weaker one. Think of treacle full of sweetness transforming the dust particles that stick to it — the dust takes on the treacle's sweetness. In the same way, the atom with four degrees of greasiness transforms the atom with two degrees. Their previous individual states disappear, and a new combined state emerges. This is how, from the union of two atoms, a single new molecule with its own distinct nature is produced.

गुणपर्ययवद् द्रव्यम् ॥३८॥

That which has qualities (guna) and modes (paryaya) is a substance (dravya).

This is the second and more complete definition of substance. Qualities are the permanent, distinguishing characteristics that always stay with the substance — like consciousness for the soul or form for matter. Modes are the temporary, changing states — like anger or calmness in the soul, or intense colour or mild colour in matter. A substance is inseparable from its qualities and is permanent. The modes come and go, but the qualities and the substance endure.

कालश्च ॥३९॥

Time (kala) also is a substance (dravya).

Time was mentioned earlier through its functions (sutra 5-22) but was not formally declared a substance until now. Both definitions of substance apply to time: existence is with origination, destruction, and permanence (sutra 5-30), and that which has qualities and modes is a substance (sutra 5-38). Time has its own qualities — like the power to cause continuous change (vartana). It is mentioned separately because, unlike the other five, it has no multitude of space-points. Each time-atom (kalanu) occupies just one space-point and stands independently.

सोऽनन्तसमयः ॥४०॥

It (the conventional time) consists of infinite (ananta) instants (samaya).

The smallest unit of time is a "samaya" — one instant. The present consists of exactly one instant. But the past and the future each contain infinite instants, so time overall is said to consist of infinite instants. The real time (niscaya kala) is characterized by the continuous subtle change (vartana) that all substances undergo. The conventional time (vyavahara kala) is what we use for practical purposes — instants, moments, hours, days — and it too rests on the foundation of real time.

द्रव्याश्रया निर्गुणा गुणाः ॥४१॥

Those which incessantly have substance (dravya) as their substratum and do not have qualities of their own (nirguna) — are qualities (guna).

What exactly is a quality? It is something that always resides in a substance, never exists independently, and does not itself possess further qualities. Knowledge is a quality of the soul — it always resides in the soul and has no further sub-qualities. Colour is a quality of matter. Qualities distinguish one substance from another. Without the quality of consciousness, you could not tell the soul apart from matter. Without the quality of form, you could not tell matter apart from space.

तद्भावः परिणामः ॥४२॥

The condition (change) of a substance is its transformation — parinama.

The state in which a substance exists at any given moment is its parinama (transformation). The condition of the medium of motion, existing as it does right now, is its current transformation. Every substance is always in some state of transformation. This transformation is of two kinds: beginningless (anadi) — like the general condition of dharma facilitating movement, which has always been so; and with a beginning (sadi) — like a specific new change that starts at a particular moment. The substance endures, but its condition keeps changing.